45. Speaking with Your Every Move (I)

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I had promised some more about what in fact represented a whole school of thought – you might notice I used the Simple Past tense, represented, for two reasons: (i) because Behaviourism has somehow lost currency in a world tending to homogeneity. But this is not to say that it stopped being influential; and (ii) it just made room for other, more powerful trends.

Yet some aspects are so deep-rooted in people’s minds that it is difficult – in fact, I would say it would be a pity – to discard. Take the Cheshire Cat Smile – again, misnamed for grin and you will readily understand that it opened up a whole culture of attitudinal assessments:

“Well! I’ve often seen 
a cat without a grin,”

thought Alice; 
“but a grin without a cat!

It’s the most curious thing 
I ever saw in my life!”

– Lewis Carroll, “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland”

Both drawings are Lewis Carroll's own, and you can see them in the original book. 

Now, Lewis Carroll – by his real name Charles Lutwidge Dodgson /ˈtʃɑrlz ˈlʌtwɪdʒ ˈdɒdʒsən/ or CHARLZ LUDT-wij DOJ-s*n (please try to pronounce it as ‘English-like’ as possible, taking the asterisk as the place for articulating the schwa) lived in the nineteenth century (1832-1898), in Daresbury – surprise! – Cheshire, England. No wonder he found it as a wonderful source of inspiration (good for us, twenty-first century receivers of culture!) for the Cheshire Cat, Alice’s subtle conscience. 

It’s just that, if you read Alice in Wonderland – you should have! – you will agree with me that the Cheshire Cat is far from giving advice, in the sense someone would expect to read about in a ‘children’s story’. That’s the point: Alice in Wonderland is not just any story, for it’s the product of the mind of a mathematician, cleric, artist and photographer, all in one: Lewis Carroll. 

Stamp: Great Britain cca 1991
(Wikipedia)

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I couldn’t write enough in a post like this to emphasise how important the Cheshire Cat is for the UK: somewhere around 1991 a stamp was printed with the famous smile that has for so long been reproduced, altered, printed, cartoonified, intertextualized. What I can write about has to do with the meaning of this particular ‘smile’, called in fact grin in English: a mixture of social convention, slightly menacing anticipation of a possible aggression, which might easily be traced through ethology (do you remember? – the previous three posts speak about it) as belonging to animals.

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Well, the rest is just a search for measure. Read the article below and answer the questions. That’s how you will prepare for the second part of this entry, which will be uploaded soon.   

 

Speaking with every move of your body

 

[Adapted from Reading the Signals, an article in The Cambridge CAE Course, by Mary Spratt and Linda B. Taylor]

1.           A pleasant smile is a strong indication of a friendly and open attitude and a willingness to communicate. It is a positive, nonverbal signal sent with the hope that the other person will smile back. When you smile, you demonstrate that you have noticed the person in a positive manner. The other person considers it a compliment and will usually feel good. The result? The other person will usually smile back.

   Smiling does not mean that you have to put on a phony face or pretend that you are happy all of the time. But when you see someone you know, or would like to make contact with, do smile. By smiling, you are demonstrating an open attitude to conversation.

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2.   You might not realize that closed posture is the cause of many conversational problems. Typical closed posture is sitting with your arms and legs crossed and your hand covering your mouth or chin. This is often called the “thinking pose,” but just ask yourself this question: Are you going to interrupt someone who appears to be deep in thought? Not only does this posture give off “stay away” signals to others, but it also prevents your main “signal sender” (your mouth) from being seen by others looking for receptive conversational signals. Without these receptive signals, another person will most likely avoid you and look for someone who appears to be more available for contact.

   To overcome this habitual way of standing or sitting, start by keeping your hands away from your mouth, and keep your arms uncrossed. Crossed arms tend to indicate a defensive frame of mind, and thus one not particularly favourable to outside contact. They can also indicate impatience, displeasure, or judgment - any of which would discourage people from opening up.

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   Open posture is most effective when you place yourself within communicating distance of the other person - that is, within about five feet. Take care, however, not to violate someone’s “personal space” by getting too close, too soon.

3.        Leaning forward slightly while a person is talking to you indicates interest on your part, and shows you are listening to what the person is saying. This is usually taken as a compliment by the other person, and will encourage him to continue talking.

   Often people will lean back with their hands over their mouth, chin, or behind their head in the “thinking” pose. This posture gives off signals of judgment, scepticism, and boredom from the listener. Since most people do not feel comfortable when they think they are being judged, this leaning-back posture tends to inhibit the speaker from continuing.

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   It’s far better to lean forward slightly in a casual and natural way. By doing this, you are saying: ‘I hear what you’re saying, and I’m interested - keep talking!’ This usually lets the other person feel that what he is saying is interesting, and encourages him to continue speaking.

4.    In many cultures the most acceptable form of first contact between two people who are just meeting is a warm handshake. This is true when meeting members of the same or opposite sex - and not just in business, but in social situations, too. In nearly every situation, a warm and firm handshake is a safe and positive way of showing an open and friendly attitude toward the people you meet.

   Be the first to extend your hand in greeting. Couple this with a friendly ‘Hello’, a nice smile, and your name, and you have made the first step to open the channels of communication between you and the other person.

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  5.     The strongest of the nonverbal gestures are sent through the eyes. Direct eye contact indicates that you are listening to the other person, and that you want to know about her.

   Eye contact should be natural and not forced or overdone. It is perfectly okay to have brief periods of eye contact while you observe other parts of the person’s face - particularly the mouth. When the person smiles, be sure to smile back. But always make an effort to return your gaze to the person’s eyes as she speaks. It is common to look up, down, and all around when speaking to others, and it's acceptable not to have eye contact at all times.

   Too much eye contact, especially if it is forced, can be counterproductive. If you stare at a person, or leer in a suspicious manner, the other person may feel uncomfortable and even suspicious about your intentions. A fixed stare can appear as aggressive behaviour if it takes the form of a challenge as to who will look away first.

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Read the text again more carefully and note down any practical suggestions on ‘positive’ body language.

To what extent do you agree with the advice given in the text?

How far would you personally wish to adopt the advice given?

44. Body Language

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How long do (you think) humans need to realize the importance of their postures? According to many, a lifetime. But this will be the topic of the following [weekly] entry; for the time being, this is what you are kindly offered:

Read the following passage and answer the questions.

Making sense of Monkey Business

 [Adapted from New Success at First Certificate by Robert O’Neill, Michael Duckworth and Kathy Gude]

‘Who can one hit, if not one’s friends?’ a famous actor once asked his old comrade and fellow actor shortly before punching him on the jaw.

The response of the surprised, bruised actor is not recorded. Nevertheless, the story illustrates an interesting aspect of human behaviour.

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Despite the unreasonable attack, the two old men remained firm friends. Peace was made - and this reconciliation represents the most important aspect of the incident, says Dutch zoologist Frans de Waal in a recently-published book.

He believes that scientists who study human nature have concentrated on violence, on our ability for competition, at the expense of our capacity for making peace. As a result, these scientists have led people to believe that violence is much more a part of human nature than peace. An examination of reconciliation is needed to correct the balance, he believes.

De Waal has studied human peace-making and has attempted to put it in its proper context - by comparing how we and our close animal cousins, the apes and monkeys, solve our disputes. The result is a highly readable, essentially old- fashioned book which emphasizes the parallels between our behaviour and that of animals. It is, however, a dangerous approach, for it is all too easy to detect human ‘motivation’ in creatures incapable of such experiences.

But for de Waal, such comparisons are not invalid. The only differences in behaviour, he believes, are those of quantity. ‘Whereas monkeys generally make up within minutes, humans can take days, years, even generations to do the same.’

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Our species has many conciliatory gestures in common with these animals, e.g. stretching out a hand, smiling, kissing, embracing - which de Waal traces back 30 million years. So what does this new interpretation of human reconciliation tell us about world conflicts, peace negotiations and arms reduction talks? Unfortunately, not much, it seems. ‘If my studies of monkeys and apes contain any lesson for the world, it is that people who need each other for one reason or another are less likely to fight: and if they do fight, they are more likely to make up afterwards.’ It is an analysis unlikely to revolutionize world politics, but it would be wrong to criticize such an interesting book for this reason.

Choose the best answer.

1.      When the actor was punched by his friend

A he had been expecting the attack.

B they had been having an argument.

C it did not destroy their friendship.

D he responded by hitting him back.

Jane Goodall and one of her primate friends
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2.    Frans de Waal believes that scientists have

A devoted too much time to studying violence.

B proved conclusively that peace and violence are of equal importance.

C tried to discover why humans find reconciliation difficult.

D had insufficient resources to study the problem of violence.

3.    The writer feels that de Waal's comparisons between human and animal behaviour are

A perfectly acceptable.

B not unreasonable.

C proof of his arguments.

D not always valid.

4.    De Waal feels that the behaviour of humans and that of monkeys differs only in the fact that

A monkeys do not experience human 'motivation'.

B monkeys form fewer relationships than humans.

C the time taken for reconciliation is greater in humans.

D they do not use the same conciliatory gestures.

G8 body language (BBC News photo)

5.     De Waal's studies lead to the conclusion that there is

A more chance of reconciliation when people do not depend on one another.

B less chance of fighting when people depend on one another.

C less chance of fighting when humans or animals form groups.

D more chance of reconciliation after longer periods of fighting.

43. Washoe and Empathy

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Read the following passage quickly to get an idea of what it is about.

[Adapted from New Success at First Certificate by Robert O’Neill, Michael Duckworth and Kathy Gude]

Dolphins are not the only animals ... (1) humans that use sounds in an apparently intelligent manner. Whales also use a complex system of sounds ... (2) is similar in many ways to a human language. One type of whale even sings, and its songs can ... (3) on for as long as three or four hours. What is more, they can be heard under water at ... (4) of more than 300 kilometres. After analysing one of these songs with the aid of a computer, Carl Sagan said it ... (5) at least a million 'bits' of information. This is approximately the same ... (6) of 'bits' as in a long poem like the Odyssey.

Washoe laughing

Chimpanzees also use a system of different sounds to communicate with each ... (7). One type of cry ... (8) to mean something like 'danger in the air' or 'big bird' and another apparently means 'danger on the ground' or 'snake'. When they ... (9) the first cry, they hide under trees or in holes and look up at the sky.

The second cry causes them to hide in the upper ... (10) of trees and to stare nervously at the grass.

Chimpanzees are also ... (11) of learning sign language. So are gorillas. One chimp called Washoe learned to ... (12) about 160 separate signs meaning ... (13) things as 'Give me a drink' and 'banana'. Washoe even ... (14) to swear. She had a teacher called Jack ... (15) once refused to give her a drink. Washoe ... (16) angrier and angrier and used several signs which ... (17) 'dirty Jack'!

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A group of chimps at a research institute in Atlanta, Georgia, have recently ... (18) taught to type sentences, using a kind of computer. The chimps' trainer was called Tim, and he kept correcting the ... (19) one of the chimps made. The chimp obviously wanted Tim to stop ... (20) him and typed out the following request: 'Tim, please leave room!'

Here are the missing words. Fill each of the numbered blanks with one word. Notice that sometimes more than one alternative is possible.

got    such  learned  other correcting  contained  distances  make/use  been  besides  branches seems/appears  who  mistakes   capable  number/amount hear   go  meant  which/that

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VOCABULARY

A. Complete the following sentences with an appropriate word formed from the word in CAPITALS.

Example: Notice the similarity of these words. (SIMILAR)

1. Language is a means of ... (COMMUNICATE)

2. Dolphins are ... very intelligent. (APPEAR)

3. How do they show their ... ? (INTELLIGENT)

4. Sagan looked at Elvar in ... (ASTONISH)

5. He wanted to learn more about the ... of a dolphin's brain.(DEVELOP)

6. The chimp's trainer made several ... (CORRECT)

7. His ... to stop annoyed the chimp. (REFUSE)

8. The chimp looked at Tim ... (ANGRY)

Which is the phrasal verb?

B Study these examples. The same pair of words is used twice. But is the meaning the same in both examples? Which of the two is the phrasal verb?

The mature Washoe

a. Have you ever looked into a microscope?

b. Carl Sagan has looked into the way dolphins communicate with each other.

c. When the chimps hear a certain cry, they look up.

d. Look up the words you don't understand in the dictionary.

e. When I was very young, I wanted to go on the stage as an actor.

f. If you give him a chance, he will go on talking forever.

Washoe shortly before her death

g. Go up the stairs and turn left.

h. Prices go up but never come down.

i. Come down here!

Study examples a-i above and find the sentence with a pair of words meaning

1. investigate

2. search for and find in a book or list

3. continue

4. rise

5. fall

Two true stories: Flo and Flint, and Washoe's empathy 

The feeling of grief

42. Sharing Common Origins

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A WHIFF OF ETHOLOGY

Important note: this post was uptaded at 10:15 hours on the 26th of July. Now it contains the suggested answers I promised when I posted it. See below after the page-break.

The science of ethology developed in the first half of the 20^th century as a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to certain other disciplines such as neuro-anatomy, ecology, and evolution. Ethologists are typically interested in a behavioural process rather than in a particular animal group, and often study one type of behaviour (e.g. aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.

The desire to understand animals has made ethology a rapidly growing field. Since the turn of the 21st century, many aspects of animal communication, animal emotions, animal culture, learning, and even sexual conduct that experts long thought they understood, have been re-examined, and new conclusions reached. New fields have developed, such as neuroethology.

Understanding ethology, or animal behaviourism, is very important in animal training. Considering the natural behaviours of certain animals or specific breeds of animals enables the trainer to select the breed best suited to perform the required task. It also enables the trainer to encourage the re-performance of certain naturally-occurring behaviours, and also the discontinuance of undesirable behaviours.

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What animals can you see in the pictures?

What are the animals and the people doing?

Where do you think these pictures were taken?

(Success at FCE)

Read through the following list of animals and divide them into two categories: animals which are useful or friendly to humans, and animals which are dangerous or a nuisance to humans.

Spiders	tigers	cats	elephants	mosquitoes	dogs
sheep	whales	horses	wolves	mice	rats

Do you think we should train animals to entertain us, for example, in circuses? Why? Why not?

DOLPHINS AND HUMANS

[adapted from New Success at First Certificate by Robert O'Neill, Michael Duckworth and Kathy Gude]

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One day in 1963, a dolphin named Elvar and a famous astronomer, Carl Sagan, were playing a little game.

The astronomer was visiting an institute which was looking into the way dolphins communicate with each other. He was standing at the edge of one of the tanks where several of these highly intelligent, friendly creatures were kept. Elvar had just swum up alongside him and had turned on his back. He wanted Sagan to scratch his stomach again, as the astronomer had done twice before. But this time Elvar was too deep in the water for Sagan to reach him. Elvar looked up at Sagan, waiting. Then, after a minute or so, the dolphin leapt up through the water into the air and made a sound just like the word 'More!'

The astonished astronomer went to the director of the institute and told him about the incident.

‘Oh, yes. That's one of the words he knows’ the director said, showing no surprise at all.

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Dolphins have bigger brains in proportion to their body size than humans have, and it has been known for a long time that they can make a number of sounds. What is more, these sounds seem to have different functions, such as warning each other of danger. Sound travels much faster and much further in water than it does in air. That is why the parts of the brain that deal with sound are much better developed in dolphins than in humans. But can it be said that dolphins have a 'language', in the real sense of the word? Scientists don't agree on this.

A language is not just a collection of sounds, or even words. A language has a structure, or what we call a grammar. The grammar of a language helps to give it meaning. For example, the two questions 'Who loves Mary?' and 'Who does Mary love?' mean different things. If you stop to think about it, you will see that this difference doesn't come from the words in the question but from the difference in structure. That is why the question 'Can dolphins speak?' can't be answered until we find out if dolphins not only make sounds but also arrange them in ways which affect their meaning.

Choose the best answer.

1.      The dolphin leapt into the air because

A Sagan had turned his back.

B it was part of the game they were playing.

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C he wanted Sagan to scratch him again.

D Sagan wanted him to do this.

2.    When Sagan told the director about what the dolphin had done, the director

A didn't seem to think it was unusual.

B thought Sagan was joking.

C told Sagan about other words the dolphin knew.

D asked him if he knew other words.

3.    Dolphins' brains are particularly well developed to

A help them to travel fast in water.

B arrange sounds in different structures.

C respond to different kinds of sound.

D communicate with humans through sound.

4.    The sounds we call words can be called a language only if

A each sound has a different meaning.

B each sound is different from the other.

C there is a system of writing.

D they have a structure or grammar.

VOCABULARY: say, tell, talk or speak?

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Complete the following sentences with say, tell, talk or speak.

How many languages can you--?

What is the first word most children learn to--?     

Stop it! Don't--nonsense!

Please--us another joke.

When do children usually learn to--?

Please--me when to get off this bus.

Actions--louder than words.

Sorry, I wasn't listening. What did you--?

LANGUAGE STUDY

How structure changes meaning

A. What is the difference in meaning in the following three pairs of sentences? What is it that causes this change of meaning?

Sound travels through water very fast.

The sound travels through the water very fast.

Who loves Mary?

Who does Mary love?

Stop to think about it!

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Stop thinking about it!

Which sentence could be rephrased as follows?

Stop for a moment and think about it.

Don't think about it.

Mary loves someone. Who?

Someone loves Mary. Who?

Can you rephrase the other two sentences?

Two types of question with who

B. Study each sentence carefully. Then answer the two questions about each sentence.

Tom loves Mary but Mary loves Dick.

a) Who loves Mary? b) Who does Mary love?

Lee Oswald killed Kennedy and Jack Ruby killed Oswald.

a) Who killed Oswald? b) Who did Oswald kill?

C. What questions would you ask in these situations?

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Someone broke the window. You want to know who.

Someone always leaves the door open. Ask who.

Cleopatra loved someone. Ask who.

The teacher works for someone. Find out who.

Only a very few people like doing exercises like these. Find out who.