43. Washoe and Empathy

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Read the following passage quickly to get an idea of what it is about.

[Adapted from New Success at First Certificate by Robert O’Neill, Michael Duckworth and Kathy Gude]

Dolphins are not the only animals ... (1) humans that use sounds in an apparently intelligent manner. Whales also use a complex system of sounds ... (2) is similar in many ways to a human language. One type of whale even sings, and its songs can ... (3) on for as long as three or four hours. What is more, they can be heard under water at ... (4) of more than 300 kilometres. After analysing one of these songs with the aid of a computer, Carl Sagan said it ... (5) at least a million 'bits' of information. This is approximately the same ... (6) of 'bits' as in a long poem like the Odyssey.

Washoe laughing

Chimpanzees also use a system of different sounds to communicate with each ... (7). One type of cry ... (8) to mean something like 'danger in the air' or 'big bird' and another apparently means 'danger on the ground' or 'snake'. When they ... (9) the first cry, they hide under trees or in holes and look up at the sky.

The second cry causes them to hide in the upper ... (10) of trees and to stare nervously at the grass.

Chimpanzees are also ... (11) of learning sign language. So are gorillas. One chimp called Washoe learned to ... (12) about 160 separate signs meaning ... (13) things as 'Give me a drink' and 'banana'. Washoe even ... (14) to swear. She had a teacher called Jack ... (15) once refused to give her a drink. Washoe ... (16) angrier and angrier and used several signs which ... (17) 'dirty Jack'!

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A group of chimps at a research institute in Atlanta, Georgia, have recently ... (18) taught to type sentences, using a kind of computer. The chimps' trainer was called Tim, and he kept correcting the ... (19) one of the chimps made. The chimp obviously wanted Tim to stop ... (20) him and typed out the following request: 'Tim, please leave room!'

Here are the missing words. Fill each of the numbered blanks with one word. Notice that sometimes more than one alternative is possible.

got    such  learned  other correcting  contained  distances  make/use  been  besides  branches seems/appears  who  mistakes   capable  number/amount hear   go  meant  which/that

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VOCABULARY

A. Complete the following sentences with an appropriate word formed from the word in CAPITALS.

Example: Notice the similarity of these words. (SIMILAR)

1. Language is a means of ... (COMMUNICATE)

2. Dolphins are ... very intelligent. (APPEAR)

3. How do they show their ... ? (INTELLIGENT)

4. Sagan looked at Elvar in ... (ASTONISH)

5. He wanted to learn more about the ... of a dolphin's brain.(DEVELOP)

6. The chimp's trainer made several ... (CORRECT)

7. His ... to stop annoyed the chimp. (REFUSE)

8. The chimp looked at Tim ... (ANGRY)

Which is the phrasal verb?

B Study these examples. The same pair of words is used twice. But is the meaning the same in both examples? Which of the two is the phrasal verb?

The mature Washoe

a. Have you ever looked into a microscope?

b. Carl Sagan has looked into the way dolphins communicate with each other.

c. When the chimps hear a certain cry, they look up.

d. Look up the words you don't understand in the dictionary.

e. When I was very young, I wanted to go on the stage as an actor.

f. If you give him a chance, he will go on talking forever.

Washoe shortly before her death

g. Go up the stairs and turn left.

h. Prices go up but never come down.

i. Come down here!

Study examples a-i above and find the sentence with a pair of words meaning

1. investigate

2. search for and find in a book or list

3. continue

4. rise

5. fall

Two true stories: Flo and Flint, and Washoe's empathy 

The feeling of grief

42. Sharing Common Origins

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A WHIFF OF ETHOLOGY

Important note: this post was uptaded at 10:15 hours on the 26th of July. Now it contains the suggested answers I promised when I posted it. See below after the page-break.

The science of ethology developed in the first half of the 20^th century as a combination of laboratory and field science, with a strong relation to certain other disciplines such as neuro-anatomy, ecology, and evolution. Ethologists are typically interested in a behavioural process rather than in a particular animal group, and often study one type of behaviour (e.g. aggression) in a number of unrelated animals.

The desire to understand animals has made ethology a rapidly growing field. Since the turn of the 21st century, many aspects of animal communication, animal emotions, animal culture, learning, and even sexual conduct that experts long thought they understood, have been re-examined, and new conclusions reached. New fields have developed, such as neuroethology.

Understanding ethology, or animal behaviourism, is very important in animal training. Considering the natural behaviours of certain animals or specific breeds of animals enables the trainer to select the breed best suited to perform the required task. It also enables the trainer to encourage the re-performance of certain naturally-occurring behaviours, and also the discontinuance of undesirable behaviours.

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What animals can you see in the pictures?

What are the animals and the people doing?

Where do you think these pictures were taken?

(Success at FCE)

Read through the following list of animals and divide them into two categories: animals which are useful or friendly to humans, and animals which are dangerous or a nuisance to humans.

Spiders	tigers	cats	elephants	mosquitoes	dogs
sheep	whales	horses	wolves	mice	rats

Do you think we should train animals to entertain us, for example, in circuses? Why? Why not?

DOLPHINS AND HUMANS

[adapted from New Success at First Certificate by Robert O'Neill, Michael Duckworth and Kathy Gude]

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One day in 1963, a dolphin named Elvar and a famous astronomer, Carl Sagan, were playing a little game.

The astronomer was visiting an institute which was looking into the way dolphins communicate with each other. He was standing at the edge of one of the tanks where several of these highly intelligent, friendly creatures were kept. Elvar had just swum up alongside him and had turned on his back. He wanted Sagan to scratch his stomach again, as the astronomer had done twice before. But this time Elvar was too deep in the water for Sagan to reach him. Elvar looked up at Sagan, waiting. Then, after a minute or so, the dolphin leapt up through the water into the air and made a sound just like the word 'More!'

The astonished astronomer went to the director of the institute and told him about the incident.

‘Oh, yes. That's one of the words he knows’ the director said, showing no surprise at all.

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Dolphins have bigger brains in proportion to their body size than humans have, and it has been known for a long time that they can make a number of sounds. What is more, these sounds seem to have different functions, such as warning each other of danger. Sound travels much faster and much further in water than it does in air. That is why the parts of the brain that deal with sound are much better developed in dolphins than in humans. But can it be said that dolphins have a 'language', in the real sense of the word? Scientists don't agree on this.

A language is not just a collection of sounds, or even words. A language has a structure, or what we call a grammar. The grammar of a language helps to give it meaning. For example, the two questions 'Who loves Mary?' and 'Who does Mary love?' mean different things. If you stop to think about it, you will see that this difference doesn't come from the words in the question but from the difference in structure. That is why the question 'Can dolphins speak?' can't be answered until we find out if dolphins not only make sounds but also arrange them in ways which affect their meaning.

Choose the best answer.

1.      The dolphin leapt into the air because

A Sagan had turned his back.

B it was part of the game they were playing.

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C he wanted Sagan to scratch him again.

D Sagan wanted him to do this.

2.    When Sagan told the director about what the dolphin had done, the director

A didn't seem to think it was unusual.

B thought Sagan was joking.

C told Sagan about other words the dolphin knew.

D asked him if he knew other words.

3.    Dolphins' brains are particularly well developed to

A help them to travel fast in water.

B arrange sounds in different structures.

C respond to different kinds of sound.

D communicate with humans through sound.

4.    The sounds we call words can be called a language only if

A each sound has a different meaning.

B each sound is different from the other.

C there is a system of writing.

D they have a structure or grammar.

VOCABULARY: say, tell, talk or speak?

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Complete the following sentences with say, tell, talk or speak.

How many languages can you--?

What is the first word most children learn to--?     

Stop it! Don't--nonsense!

Please--us another joke.

When do children usually learn to--?

Please--me when to get off this bus.

Actions--louder than words.

Sorry, I wasn't listening. What did you--?

LANGUAGE STUDY

How structure changes meaning

A. What is the difference in meaning in the following three pairs of sentences? What is it that causes this change of meaning?

Sound travels through water very fast.

The sound travels through the water very fast.

Who loves Mary?

Who does Mary love?

Stop to think about it!

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Stop thinking about it!

Which sentence could be rephrased as follows?

Stop for a moment and think about it.

Don't think about it.

Mary loves someone. Who?

Someone loves Mary. Who?

Can you rephrase the other two sentences?

Two types of question with who

B. Study each sentence carefully. Then answer the two questions about each sentence.

Tom loves Mary but Mary loves Dick.

a) Who loves Mary? b) Who does Mary love?

Lee Oswald killed Kennedy and Jack Ruby killed Oswald.

a) Who killed Oswald? b) Who did Oswald kill?

C. What questions would you ask in these situations?

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Someone broke the window. You want to know who.

Someone always leaves the door open. Ask who.

Cleopatra loved someone. Ask who.

The teacher works for someone. Find out who.

Only a very few people like doing exercises like these. Find out who.

41. Turning over a New Leaf

Daniel MasterMan:
Ghost plane bound for The
British Isles

Let’s make a deal you and I: remember that you – and I – can choose to do or not to do something. But what’s the use of sitting on the fence (i.e., doing nothing) when in fact it all comes down to living our own life?

Yes, I know, it’s holiday time – a reasonable reason to refer to it, even if it has to do with work, and not necessarily with travelling for pleasure. Even so, there’s a place for what has been – and might still be – a style in setting rules for those who pack and board a plane, or get on a train: when in Rome, do what the Romans do, the saying goes. So there it goes:  

A WALK IN THE GLOBAL VILLAGE

[adapted from Headway Intermediate by John & Liz Soars]

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Travelling to all corners of the world gets easier and easier. We live in a global village, but how well do we know and understand each other? Here is a simple test. Imagine you have arranged a meeting at four o’clock. What time should you expect your foreign business colleagues to arrive? If they're German, they'll be bang on time. If they're American, they'll probably be 15 minutes early. If they're British, they'll be 15 minutes late, and you should allow up to an hour for the Italians.

When the European Union began to increase in size, several guidebooks appeared giving advice on international etiquette. At first many people thought this was a joke, especially the British, who seemed to assume that the widespread understanding of their language meant a corresponding understanding of English customs. Very soon they had to change their ideas, as they realized that they had a lot to learn about how to behave with their foreign business friends.

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These cultural challenges exist side by side with the problems of doing business in a foreign language. Language, of course, is full of difficulties - disaster may be only a syllable away. But the more you know of the culture of the country you are dealing with, the less likely you are to get into difficulties. It is worth the effort. It might be rather hard to explain that the reason you lost the contract was not the product or the price, but the fact that you offended your hosts in a light-hearted comment over an aperitif. Good manners are admired: they can also make or break the deal.

1. Which of the ideas in the text above do you disagree with?

2. How much do you think international business is improved by knowing about foreign people's customs?

3. Do you know how to be "a foreigner?"

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Structure: What do you mean?

Language is full of difficulties - a sentence in the text above said disaster may be one syllable away. Apart from lots of "false friends", there are structures in English which may mean different things, depending on the verb form they take.

Put the verbs in brackets into the Gerund or the Infinitive.

1. On the way to London, he stopped (get) some petrol.

2. I’m so sorry I forgot (send) you a birthday card.

3. I hope you will remember (do) all these things I have asked you.

4. Why don’t you try (open) the tin with a coin?

Daniel MasterMan:
Linguistics in the Making

5. I’m sure he’s a doctor. I remember (talk) to him about his work the other day.

6. He always regretted not (go) to university.

7. I regret (say) that I won’t be able to come to the wedding.

8. I like (go) to the dentist for regular check-ups.

Look at these situations and decide:

•   WHO would you speak to in each case to get the information you require?

•   What EXACTLY would you say in each situation?

Look at the phrases in the speech balloon below for some ideas.

1   You've heard that flight BZ 431 is delayed.

2   You want a rail ticket to Manchester.

3   You want to reconfirm your seat on flight TR 998.

4   You want a plane ticket to Bangkok.

5   You're in a hurry to get to the airport.

6   You've arrived at the airport 3 hours before your flight.

7   You have 3 minutes before your train leaves.

8   You've heard that the 17.55 train has been cancelled.

] 

Google Images I'd like to reserve a seat on flight number GJ 414 to Toronto. --- I'd like to change/reconfirm my reservation on flight number AR 770 on the 16th of this month. --- One business class/economy class return/single to Melbourne, please. --- Which platform/track/gate does the 13.40 to Glasgow leave from? Can you tell me what time flight number SQ 060 is due to arrive/depart?

40. Facts and Stats

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Today, thanks to all of you who have chosen at least once to peruse the articles presented in this blog, the outcome of about six months’ work casts promising figures on the blog’s stats: 5, 597 views since December 25^th, and 997 visitors since I installed ClustrMaps – with its tiny yellow souls pulsating friendly to announce that someone at that location is reading a post, looking at the pictures, listening to an audio, or viewing a video and so tuning in to this virtual extension of a blogger’s mind.

And I cannot but be happy that you represent an audience in this vast network of data. I’m imagining that you, people from all walks of life — the general population, as they call us — are, much in the same way as I am, confronted by unprecedented volumes of information available electronically, and the mere fact that you stop to consider and share [some of] my thoughts, concerns, and information is extremely pleasing.

So this is a post which acknowledges your presence ‘on the other side of the looking glass’, where I do hope that things are not the wrong way:

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“I’ll tell you all my ideas about Looking-glass House. First, there’s the room you can see through the glass – that’s just the same as our drawing room, only the things go the other way. I can see all of it when I get upon a chair – all but the bit behind the fireplace. Oh! I do wish I could see that bit! I want so much to know whether they’ve a fire in winter; you never can tell, you know, unless our fire smokes, and then smoke comes up in that room too – but that may be only pretence, just to make it look as if they had a fire. Well then, the books are something like our books, only the words go the wrong way: I know that, because I’ve held up one of our books to the glass, and then they hold up one in the other room.”
  

[Lewis Carroll, Through the Looking Glass and What Alice Found There]

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39. The Outer Limits

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There is no denying that progress of mankind has been possible thanks to the inquisitive nature of Man (remember, capitalizing the word man gives it universal status).

Such are the depths the human spirit is capable of attaining that only looking back at the work of great thinkers can we hope to have the chance to make sense of our passage through life.

Now, I know what those of you who went through all the posts are thinking: ‘Oh no, philosophy – again?’ Yes, I’m afraid you’ll have to take it or leave it: the great adventure of words and their meanings hasn’t yet drawn to a close.

Now that editing is over, listen to the abridged version of the BBC radio programme on Ludwig Wittgenstein, whose full version you may listen to on In Our Time Philosophy (see link on the right side of the page).

While you listen, complete the gaps with a word or a short phrase.

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WITTGENSTEIN

Ludwig Wittgenstein was a towering figure in 20^th Century thought. In 1929, the economist John Maynard Keynes acknowledged him as – (0) God – having descended among men.

Considered the greatest philosopher of the Modern Age, Wittgenstein left some challenging statements for his - (1) - in philosophy. In his early work, he said, ‘the limits of my language - (2) - the limits of my world.’

His main philosophical purpose was liberating humanity from the neurotic questing over how - (3) - could solve all the problems of philosophy.

Wittgenstein (Vienna, 1889) was born and educated in Austria in a - (4 - 5) - family. Being this a(n) - (6) - period of Viennese cultural development, he grew up at the cutting edge of musical, literary and intellectual - (7) -.

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As he was interested in studying aeronautical - (8) - , he went to Manchester to specialise in designing a propeller, which required a deep knowledge of - (9) -.

His inquisitive mind made him enquire about the nature of the subject; that was how he came to read Bertrand Russell’s book ‘The Principles of Mathematics.’

He then presented himself to the renowned philosopher and mathematician whom he started to - (10) - around the Trinity College grounds, which convinced Russell that Wittgenstein was a - (11) -.

According to Russell’s own account, Wittgenstein went straight to him and asked him whether he thought he was an idiot. Russell asked for some - (12) - on philosophy and, after reading the first sentence of Wittgenstein’s text, he realized that he was a philosophical genius.

His interest in mathematics and logic took Wittgenstein to tackling Russell’s - (13) -. The outcome of their collaboration, the Tractatus, was published in 1921.

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One of the most puzzling things about the nature of mathematics is the discrepancy between how - (14) - mathematical propositions are, and the fact that we don’t actually know what Mathematics is about, since numbers don’t seem to be in the world, they are not under our - (15) - of volition.

At the time Russell thought, like the German philosopher Gottlob Frege, that it was possible to - (16-17-18) - of Mathematics and Arithmetic to truths of Logic. It was Frege’s belief that Logic represented the most general laws of thought there were, yet they belonged to an - (19) - Platonic realm, which Logic governs.

Albeit extravagant, the question arose as to whether a place can be found for logic in the world, whether it can be - (20) -. In the Tractatus, Wittgenstein rests convinced that propositions of logic are not - (21) - of the world.

Wittgenstein’s profound - (22) - in science pushed him towards studying the nature of language and the way it is used to describe the world.

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If that’s what language deals with, what about the propositions of Logic? Do these describe - (23 - 24 - 25) - in the world?

If truths of Logic - (26) - true, and since they are the boundaries of the world, then they might show the limits of intelligibility. Take all the possible - (27) - of the parts which that language allows: they will describe all the possible - (28) - the world could be: the limits of reality. 

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The limits of - (29) - coincide with the limits of reality. Therefore going beyond the boundaries of what is intelligible means then that you’re not - (30) -.  

In Our Time: Ludwig Wittgenstein